NAMES, PROPER. Proper names as opposed to appellative or common names, consist of one element (word) or more and refer to three main categories: place names, personal names and divine names. This article will deal extensively only with the first two categories.

A. The history of Biblical onomatology

It will be of some major significance to see how this subject is just beginning to unfold in the latter part of the 20th cent. as the epigraphical materials uncovered by the archeologists now place in our hands a wealth of comparative materials unknown even to those living as far back in time as the centuries just before the Christian era.

1. Important contributors. Neither the unscientific etymologies of Plato and Aristotle or the more systematic, but nevertheless speculative word-plays of Philo provide a solid base for our studies. They were effective in setting the tone for some fifteen centuries, as witnessed by the several Gr. onomastica, Jerome’s Lat. Onomasticon, and those produced by the Syrians. The Stoics, led by Zeno and Chrysippus, developed a whole doctrine of speech, but still included etymologizing as the means of unfolding the moral, religious and metaphysical truth in words. With the advent of scientific lexicography and grammar and comparative Semitics, major contributions to the subject began to appear under the names of M. Hiller (Onomasticum Sacrum, c. 1000 pp. [1706]); Simonis (Onomasticum [1741]); W. Gesenius (Thesaurus [1829-1842]); E. Nestle (Die israelitischen Eigennamen [1876]); B. Gray (Studies in Hebrew Proper Names [1898]); M. von Grunwald (Die Eigennamen des A.T. in ihrer Bedeutung für die Kenntnis des hebräischen Volksglaubens [1895]); G. Kerber (Die religionsgechichliche Beudeutung der hebräischen Eigennamen des A. T. [1897]); Fr. Ulmers (Die semitischen Eigennamenin A. T. [1901]); Th. Nöledeke (“Names,” Encyclopedia Biblica [1902]); M. Lidzbarski (“Semitische Kosenamen,” Ephemeris für semitische Epigraphik, II [1908], 1-23) and M. Noth (Die israelitschen Personnamen im Rahmen der gemeinsemitischen Namengebung [1928]).

2. Comparative onomatology. While these studies have given great insight into Heb. onomatology, they lacked some of the necessary controls, viz. the comparisons that could be made with other Sem. languages. This gap is now being filled by the following publications, Ugaritic: Roy Uyechi (A Study of Ugaritic Alphabetic Personal Names, unpublished doctoral dissertation [1961]); C. H. Gordon (Ugaritic Textbook [1965], 61-65; 508-522); F. Gröndahl (Die Personennamen der texte aus Ugarit [1967]); Phoenician: N. Joseph Kikuchi; Amorite: T. Bauer (Die Ostkanaanäern [1926]); Herbert B. Huffmon (Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts [1965]); Assyrian: Knut L. Tallquist (Assyrian Personal Names [1918]); Johann J. Stamm (Die akkadische Namengebung [1939]); Gelb, Ignace J. Purves, Pierre M. and MacRae, Allan A. (Nuzi Personal Names [1943]); Babylonian: H. Ranke (Early Babylonian Personal Names [1905]); K. L. Tallquist (Neubabylonisches Namenbuch [1905]); Egyptian: H. Ranke (Die ägyptische Personennamen, I-II [1935f.]); Palmyrene: W. Goldman (Die palmyrenischen Personeninamen [1935]); S Arab.; G. Ryckmans (les Noms propres sud-semitiques, I-III [1934, 1935]); Horite: Feiler (“Hurritische Eigennamen im Alten testament,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie [1939]); Cappadocia: Ferris J. Stephens (Personal names from Cuneiform Inscriptions of Cappadocia [1928]); and Greek: Fritz Bechtel and A. Fick (Die griechischen Personennamen [1894]). Added to these lists are Jewish names recorded in the 5th cent. b.c. Elephantine Aram. papyri; the Lachish letters and the Samaritan Ostraca.

B. The structure of names

Most scholars classify Heb. names according to their formation: (1) simple and (2) compound.

1. Compound names. The most common names in the OT consist of more than one element, i.e., two or more independent words. The relationship between these words may be: (1) two substantives functioning as nominative and genitive, the so-called construct state and (2) a complete sentence. In the construct bond, often the first element ends in “i.” This usually is regarded as a survival of the old case ending system, but occasionally it does indicate the presence of the first person sing. suffix, “my.” Infrequently, a preposition may appear before this noun in the construct, e.g., Bezaleel, “in the shadow of God.”

Sentence names are common in the Sem. languages and Heb. has its share of them. The names of Isaiah’s children (Shear-jashub, “the remnant shall return,” Maher-shalal-hash-baz, “plunder has hastened, spoil has sped”) and Hosea’s children (Lo-ruhamah, “she has found no mercy,” Lo-ammi, “he is not my people”) come to mind. The name Hephzibah, “I have no pleasure in her” (2 Kings 21:1) also illustrates this usage.

2. Simple names. These names consist of one element and may therefore be an adjective, or abbreviation of a compound name with the divine element omitted in some instances or the noun of kinship in other cases, or a third person sing. of a verb like Nathan, “He has given.” Sometimes one element simply is replaced by an ending on the remaining element and these abbreviated and apocopated forms then become simple names.

C. The names of persons

There are about 1400 names representing some 2400 individuals in the OT. The Hebrews were a mononymous people; that is, each child received only one name at birth without a family name or middle name. If a distinction were necessary, the individual could be identified easily by adding the name of his father and any other ancestor’s name in ascending order as these occasions required.

1. Simple names. These names are the most difficult, since there is only one element and it is generally some being, object, description or circumstance known in this cryptic form by the contemporaries but not as easily known to us.

a. Nature names. There are three groups of nature names: (1) animal, (2) plant, and (3) meteorological. The first group is represented by twenty-two pre-exilic southern names of which some of the better known are: Deborah, (bee), Rachel (ewe), Caleb (dog), Huldah (weasel), Achbor (mouse), Shaphan (rock badger), Jonah (dove), and Tola (worm). In addition to these examples of Heb. animal names, there are eleven foreign names in the OT of this type including: Zeeb (wolf), Eglah (calf), Oreb (raven), Hamor (ass), Jael (mountain goat), Nahash (serpent), Epher (young gazelle) and Zipporah (lady bird). Plant names, however, are rarer. Illustrations of this class are Tamar (date palm tree), Hadassah (myrtle), Elon (oak), Zethan (olive), Rimmon (pomegranate), and NT and Apoc. Susanna (lily).

While one cannot dogmatically affirm just what the intention was in every case, it is possible to parallel these names with a plethora of animal and plant names from other lists of names in the Near E. of high antiquity. It must be said that a theory, equally as justifiable as the totem theory for which there is some support, is the idea of endearment and tenderness as the reason for using these names; this might be esp. true where small animals, albeit unclean ones, are used for names!

Some meteorological names are Barak (lightning), Samson (little sun), and Nogah (sunrise). This class may be wholly derived from pagan theophorics or slight modifications thereof.

b. Physical characteristics. These few names seem to divide easily into four categories: (1) color, (2) size, (3) defects and (4) sex. Some examples are: Laban and Libni (white), Zohar (reddish white), Haruz (yellow), Edom (red), Phinehas (bronze-colored Nubian), Hakkatan (small one), Korah and Kareah (baldy), Heresh (dumb), Ikkesh (crooked), Gareb (scabby), Gideon (maimed), Paseah (halting), and Geber (male).

c. Circumstances at birth. Often the name indicates something about (1) the time of birth, (2) the place of birth, (3) order of birth, and (4) the events at birth. Some examples are: Haggai and Haggith (festal, i.e., born at feast time), Shabbethai (Sabbatical; i.e., born on the Sabbath), Judith and Jehudi (Jewess or Jew perhaps originally of Judah?), Cushi (Ethiopian), Becher or Bechor (first-born), Yathom and Yathomah (fatherless, orphan), Azubah (forsaken, perhaps by mother at birth?) and Thomas (twin).

d. Miscellaneous. There are a few additional simple names which refer either to the qualities of the person, such as Nabal (fool) and Naomi (perhaps pleasant), or to various objects like Peninnah (corals), Rebecca (cord for tying sheep), Rizpah (pavement), Bakbuk (pitcher) and Achsah (anklet). Other names in this category are: active or passive participles: Saul (asked), Baruch (blessed), Menahem (comforting); names ending in the diminutive -on, -an, -om, or -am: Nahshon (small serpent), Samson (small sun), names ending in -ai or -i for possession or gentilics, or abbreviation: Mordecai (votary of Marduk), Omri; and those ending in -a: Gera (guest).

2. Compound names. This class of names by far exceeds the former class. Especially numerous are the theophorous names, i.e., names which explicitly mention Deity.

a. Theophorous names. Generally these names are sentence names formed with the divine name of El or Yahweh. The sentence may appear with a nominal predicate indicating assurance or confidence: Joel (Yahweh is God) or a verbal predicate, e.g., one in the perfect tense expressing thanksgiving: Jonathan (Yahweh has given). Since the subject may come at the beginning or the end, e.g., Nathaniel and Elnathan, often it is difficult to decide which is the subject and predicate; this is esp. true when the MT pointing may be in question on a particular name. Some verbs are in the imperfect tense or the jussive, and thereby express a wish or desire: Jehoiachim (may Yahweh establish). Some authorities even claim to find an imperative form of the verb in these names: Hoshea (save!) but this is by no means clear.

The greatest number of these compounds contain the element for Yahweh either at the beginning or end of the name. It appears as Jeho- or Jo- in the first position and -yahu (-iah) or -yah (-jah) in the second position. G. B. Gray has counted 156 different names of over 500 persons in the OT with this divine name (HPN, 149). The Elephantine papyri give evidence of this same high frequency with as many as 170 Jews bearing a Yahweh compound name.

Ranking second in the number of occurrences is the El compound name. The OT has, according to G. B. Gray, 135 names compounded with a form of El of which 113 are Heb. personal (or tribal) names (HPN, 163-165).

The meanings found in these theophorous names cover almost the complete range of God’s being, person, gifts, and works for man. T. Nöldeke in his monumental article on “Names” in Encyclopedia Biblia arranges these meanings according to the following groupings: God’s sovereignty: He is just, rules, judges, is possessor, and the Lord; God’s gifts: He gives, increases, opens the womb, and gives freely; God’s graciousness: He blesses, has mercy, loves, helps, saves, is good, confers benefits, and is with man; God’s creating ability: He makes, builds, sets up, establishes, accomplishes; God’s knowledge: He remembers, knows, weighs, and sees; God’s salvation: He delivers, comforts, heals, redeems, preserves, keeps in safety, and conceals; God’s power: He holds fast, is strong, is a refuge, and strengthens; God’s immanence: He hears, answers, speaks, swears, promises; and God’s being and attributes: He is great, perfect, high, glorious, lives, is incomparable, dwells, comes, passes by, meets, contents, shoots, thunders, rises, is glad, is light, is fire. This is just a sample of the many roots and ideas.

b. Kinship names. The compounds denoting kinship are Ab(i) = father, Ah(i) = brother, ’Am(mi) = kinsman, ben = son, and bath = daughter. The most important are the first two: the element Ab(i) appears in thirty-one names of which three are foreign names, four are family names and the remaining twenty-four represent forty-one individuals (HPN, 26). Ah(i) appears in twenty-six names of which five are either foreign or family names and twenty-one represent thirty-three Israelites (HPN, 37). The other names are even less frequent and represent about a dozen examples each. Examples of these forms are: Abihud, Ahihud, Amminadab, Benjamin and Bathsheba.

c. Dominion names. These names include nouns designating the sovereignty of the one mentioned in the name and are therefore of great value in determining the religious character of Israel in the various periods of history. They embrace the name Melech = king; Adoni=Lord; and Baal=owner, e.g., Abimelech, Adoniram, and Jerubbaal. These forms are very frequent in other Sem. languages, esp. in Phoenician and Punic, but the OT has fourteen examples of Melech names, and even fewer examples of the other two forms: twelve Baal names of which two are an Edomite and a Phoenician, and nine Adoni names of which two are Canaanite. The reason seems obvious now in light of the comparative onomastica of Phoenicia, Ugarit and Assyria: the names were decidedly Canaanitish in their origin and formation.

D. Names of places

The rarity of sentence names and the obscurity of many of the pre-Israelitish place names make them much more difficult to explain. Some of these ambiguities now are being met by the onomastical lists from Egypt, but the problem often remains perplexing since many places just have a single simple name and the compound names are chiefly in a genitival relation.

1. Descriptive names. Frequently a site received its name from some topographical feature for which Heb. has a rich vocabulary. These might include references to: (1) the height: Ramah, Ramoth, Rumah (height), Pisgah (height) Geba, Gibeah or Gibeon (hill), Shechem (shoulder, or ridge), and Sela (cliff); (2) the locality: Sharon (plain), Mizpah (watch tower), and Bithron (ravine); (3) the presence or absence of water: in compound names of En (spring), Beer (well), Me (water), Gihon or Giah (spring), Zion (waterless) and Abel (meadow); (4) the color and beauty of the site: Lebanon (white), Adummin (ruddy or red), Kidron (very black), Zalmon (dusky), Jarkon (yellow), Carmel (garden land), Shapir or Shepher (beautiful), and Tirzah (pleasing); (5) the condition of the soil: Argob (rich earthy soil), Arabah (desert or waste land), Bozkath (plateau of volcanic stone), and Jabesh or Horeb (dry); and (6) the size, products or industries of the place: Zoar (small), Rabbath (large), Bezer, or Bozrah (fortified place), Gath (wine press), Kir (wall), and Hazor, Kiriath, or Ir (city).

Not all of the foregoing names are absolutely certain, but these seem to be the better documented meanings.

2. Nature names. G. B. Gray’s work on animal names still stands essentially unchanged since the beginning of this cent. He noted that out of some 100 animal names, thirty-three were the names of places, thirty-four were names of clans (only twenty-three were Heb.) and thirty-three were individuals (only twenty-two were Heb.) and the rest were foreign. Cf. HPN, 97, the largest proportion of animal names came from the S (at least forty-seven out of the sixty-seven town and tribal names) and twenty-two tribal and individual animal names came from foreigners.

Some of the thirty-three town names were: Aijalon (stag), Arad (wild ass), Beth-car (lamb), Eglon (calf), Ephron (gazelle), Engedi (spring of the kid), Laish (lion), Zeboim (hyena), Parah (cow), Hazar-susah (city of the horse), Ir Nahash (city of the serpent), Beth-hoglah (house of the partridge), Zorah (hornet), and Shaalbim (fox).

Names of plants, trees and shrubs also are found: Abel-shittim (meadow of the acacia), Beth-tappuah (house of the apple tree), Tamar or Baal-Tamar (date palm tree), Elah, Eloth, Elim, or Elon (oak or terebinth), Rimmon (pomegranate), Dilan (cucumber), Eshcol, Abel-cheramim or Beth-haccerem (vine), and Luz (almond tree).

E. Names of God

Since this topic will be covered more in detail under each of the names, it will be included here only as a reminder of its place in this discussion and of several distinctive concerns to onomatology.

Names compounded with Shaddai appear to be limited to the three names in Numbers 1:5, 6, 12: Shedeur, Zurishaddai and Ammishaddai. Elsewhere, the name occurs thirty-nine times as a divine name of which thirty-one belong to Job alone. In another six cases, it is an attribute of El. The word still refuses to yield its meaning in spite of a number of worthy suggestions.

The second item calling for special note in light of comparative Sem. onomatology is the Sem. feature of compound divine names. For several centuries now, Biblical scholarship has been using this double divine name as one of its chief criteria in the legitimate discipline of higher criticism. However, this may now be corrected in light of its abundant presence in documents which most certainly are unified literary productions employing the alternate names as literary relief. See a partial documentation, K. A. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and the OT, 120-125.

Bibliography See above under History of Biblical Onomatology. G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names (1896); G. B. Gray, “Name,” Dictionary of the Bible, ed. by J. Hastings (1900), III, 478-485; G. B. Gray, “Names” (Heb.), ERE, IX-X (1928), 155-162; S. Mandelkern, V. T. Concordantiae, ed. by F. Margolinii and M. Gottsteinii (1962), 1347-1532.