MINISTRY.

I. Biblical terms for ministry

A. OT terms. In keeping with its sacerdotal system, the OT distinguishes between the religious ministrations of cultic professionals on the one hand, and the laity on the other. The verb שָׁרַת, H9250, and its correlates (almost always λειτουργεῖν in the LXX) usually designate the duties performed by priests and Levites in relation to God (Exod 28:43; 29:30; Num 3:6, 31; 8:26; 18:2; Deut 10:8; 17:12; 18:5; 21:5; 1 Kings 8:11; 1 Chron 15:2; Jer 33:21). The verb עָבַד, H6268, (nearly always λατρευεῖν in the LXX) refers to religious service rendered by the entire congregation or an individual (Exod 3:12; 4:23; 7:16; 8:1; 2 Sam 15:8; Job 21:15; Ps 22:30; Mal 3:14). It should be noted that where the noun λειτουργία, G3311, occurs in the LXX it nearly always represents עֲבֹדָה, H6275, possibly because no abstract noun had been formed from שָׁרַת, H9250.

B. NT terms. When we turn to the NT, we are struck immediately by the obliteration of the OT distinction between professional and non-professional religious service, for here sacerdotalism has yielded to a universal priesthood constituted by Christ and shared alike by all who are united to Him in the bonds of a living faith (Phil 2:17; 1 Pet 2:5, 9; Rev 1:5, 6; 5:10; 20:6). Since there is no longer any elite priestly caste, but ministry is essentially and equally the privileged vocation of all, priestly language generally is applied to the body of believers as a whole.

The NT employs a variety of terms in connection with differing types and functions of ministry, both general and particular. Although each term has its own special shade of meaning, there is considerable overlapping in usage, so that even from a single point of view any number of these terms may be used to designate a particular ministration, or the one who performs it.

1. The most common NT term for ministry is διακονεῖν with its correlates. Originally signifying the service of a table waiter (cf. Luke 12:37; 17:8; John 12:2), in classical Gr. the word generally has a menial connotation. In the NT, however, where the root idea is supplying beneficial service, διακονεῖν is dignified by the highest associations and employed with a wide range of application. Christian apostles are ministers of Christ (1 Cor 3:5; 1 Tim 1:12), while even heathen magistrates are ministers of God (Rom 13:4). Angels are ministering spirits sent forth to serve the heirs of salvation (Heb 1:14). Paul says that Christ became a minister to the circumcised (Rom 15:8), while Jesus described Himself as “one who serves” (Luke 22:27). By contrast with the old ministry of the law which was a ministry of condemnation, a new ministry of the Spirit has now been inaugurated as a ministry of righteousness (2 Cor 3:7-9).

In relation to the Christian community διακονεῖν is used to denote: (1) discipleship in general (John 12:26); (2) the full sweep of ministrations and activities by means of which Christ’s work is carried on in the Church and in the world (Acts 21:19; 1 Cor 16:15; Eph 4:11; Col 4:17; 2 Tim 4:5); (3) the preaching and teaching of the Word (Acts 6:4); (4) a special divine “gift” for various spiritual and temporal services (Rom 12:7; 1 Cor 12:5); (5) specific benevolent ministries such as the distribution of welfare assistance in the church at Jerusalem (Acts 6:1), and contributions from Gentile churches for impoverished believers at Jerusalem (2 Cor 8:4); (6) personal services like those which Tychicus rendered to Paul (Eph 6:21); (7) the office of deacon (Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:8, 12).

2. Closely allied to διακονεῖν is ὑπηρετεῖν, which in secular Gr. originally designated the labor of an under-rower in a galley, but which in the NT refers simply to a helper or assistant under orders from a superior. Insofar as the term has any special connotation in apostolic lit., it seems to suggest subordination. The noun ὑπηρέτης, G5677, is used of attendants in the high priest’s household (Matt 26:58; Mark 14:54, 65), and of inferior officials of the Sanhedrin (Matt 5:25; John 7:32, 45, 46; 18:3, 12, 22; Acts 5:22, 26). Luke also uses it to designate the hazzan of the synagogue at Nazareth, an attendant similar to a verger, who had custody of the sacred scrolls read in public worship (Luke 4:20); also of John Mark as assistant to Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary excursion (Acts 13:5); and of those whom Jesus sent out to preach the Word (Luke 9:2); while he employs the verb in connection with David’s service to God (Acts 13:36). Jesus referred to His followers as ὑπηρέται (John 18:36), and Paul proudly claimed the same relationship to Christ (Acts 26:16; 1 Cor 4:1).

3. Of weighty importance for any study of Christian ministry is δουλεύειν and its correlate δοῦλος. Frequently tr. “servant” in Eng. VSS, e.g. KJV, the force of δοῦλος in the original is thereby lost, for the word means “slave” or “bondslave.” Where the emphasis rests on divine lordship, with the correlative concepts of ownership and sovereignty, man’s service accordingly is viewed in terms of slavery (Matt 6:24; Luke 16:13; 1 Thess 1:9). Christians generally, also their leaders and even apostles, therefore function as slaves of God and of Christ in fulfilling their divine vocation (Acts 4:29; 1 Cor 7:22; Gal 1:10; Col 4:12; 2 Tim 2:24; 1 Pet 2:16; cf. Rom 6:22). In the opening salutation of his epistles, Paul more than once identifies himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1; Titus 1:1), a characteristic common to other apostolic authors (James 1:1; Jude 1). Elsewhere, in a passage of intense emotion, Paul uses the kindred verb δουλόω, G1530, to testify that in his ministry he willingly made himself a slave to all men, in order that he might win more to Christ (1 Cor 9:19). Most remarkable of all, in sounding the depths of the divine self-humiliation which shaped the pattern of the Incarnation, the same apostle does not shrink from declaring that to accomplish His ministry of redemption Christ assumed “the form of a slave, being born in the likeness of men” (Phil 2:7).

4. It was observed above that the LXX almost exclusively restricts λειτουργεῖν to professional religious service. In the NT this verb and its correlates occur only fifteen times in Luke, Paul, and Hebrews, but nowhere else (διακονεῖν has now supplanted the LXX λειτουργεῖν), and never denotes a literal priestly function in regard to Christian ministry. They are retained to designate the work of the Jewish priesthood (Luke 1:23; Heb 9:21), angelic ministrations on behalf of believers (1:14), and the priestly ministry of the ascended Christ in heaven (8:2, 6). By contrast with the LXX, and in harmony with its doctrine of the universal priesthood of believers, the NT extends the usage of these terms indiscriminately and fig. to include the worship of prophets and teachers (Acts 13:2), Paul’s ministry of the Gospel to Gentiles (Rom 15:16), the self-sacrificing service of the Philippians (Phil 2:17), the care of Epaphroditus for Paul’s physical needs (2:25), the relief offering for the Jerusalem church (Rom 15:27), and even civil authorities as λειτουργοί of God (13:6).

5. One other word, λατρεύειν, deserves mention. At first signifying remunerative service (the opposite of δουλεύειν, the non-remunerative service of a slave), λατρεύειν was expanded to include service rendered to God. In the LXX it designates the people’s service to God in contrast to the special service of the priestly caste (λειτουργεῖν). A technical NT term for the performance of religious duties, esp. of a cultic nature, this verb and its correlate noun λατρεία, G3301, designate divine worship in the strict sense of adoration, prayer, and sacrificial offerings (Matt 4:10; Acts 7:7, 42; Rom 9:4; Heb 9:1ff.; 10:2; Rev 7:15; 22:3). They also are used in a general fig. sense for the whole life of righteous devotion, which in its rich and manifold expression finds favor with God (Luke 1:74; Acts 24:14; 27:23; Rom 1:9; 12:1; Phil 3:3; 2 Tim 1:3).

II. Christ and ministry

A. Christ the pattern for ministry. Christian ministry in all of its modes and manifestations must be traced ultimately to the ministry of Christ. From the outset the Church perceived that the public career of Jesus is most aptly described by the term “ministry,” and it is within this framework that the Gospel records in their entirety are set. The reference to Jesus in prayer by the Early Church as the “holy servant” of God (Acts 4:27, 30) recalls the prophetic description of the Messiah as the “Servant of Yahweh,” whose self-sacrificing career fulfills God’s redemptive purpose for His people (Isa 40-66; Zech 3:8-10). The angel who revealed Jesus’ approaching birth to Joseph declared that His essential work would be the unique ministry of saving His people from their sins (Matt 1:21). Paul conceives of the Incarnation as Christ’s vesting Himself in the form of a slave (Phil 2:7).

It was thus that Jesus understood His vocation. This concept of a Servant-Messiah, however, set Him immediately on a collision course with prevailing Messianic expectations which, embellished with symbols of earthly pomp and dominion, focused on the political elevation of Israel over all nations, esp. its oppressors. The temptation (Matt 4:1-11), the abortive coronation scheme after the feeding of the five thousand (John 6:1-15), Peter’s rebuke at Caesarea Philippi (Mark 8:27-33), and the popular acclaim at the triumphal entry (Matt 21:1-11) represent unsuccessful bids for Jesus’ acceptance of the conventional Messianic image (cf. T. W. Manson, The Church’s Ministry, pp. 17, 18). Jesus’ commission as Messiah was a divine investiture for ministry to the whole spectrum of human need, whose remedy in every particular lay in the all-embracing term “salvation.” His decisive and unswerving commitment to this self-sacrificing career shines through many of His recorded sayings, but nowhere is it more clearly epitomized than in the words, “The Son of man also came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45; cf. Luke 22:27). His washing of the disciples’ feet in the Upper Room was a dramatic vignette of the unselfish life of ministry now rushing to its close (John 13:1-11).

Ministry describes the whole range of Jesus’ Messianic activities: preaching, teaching, various types of miracles, including healing the sick and raising the dead, forgiveness of sins, institution of the sacraments, etc. It extends even further to include His passion and death (Mark 10:45). So far from being an innovation or disfigurement, the cross is of a piece with the preceding ministry, the scandalous yet crowning consummation which invests His Messianic career with ultimate and eternal significance. His whole service on behalf of sinful and suffering humanity is telescoped in His sacrificial death. The Servant-Messiah mounts the throne of universal empire by laying down His life as a ransom for the citizens of His kingdom.

This perfect example of humble, self-denying service becomes, in turn, the norm and pattern for all of Christ’s followers whom He calls to share His own destiny. Discipleship is service (John 12:26; cf. Acts 20:18-35; Rom 12:1; 2 Cor 3-7). As the Father sent the Son into the world for ministry, so the Son sends His followers into the same world for ministry (John 17:18; 20:21). Whereas the world calculates greatness on the scale of lordly dominion and authority, the only greatness Christ recognizes in His kingdom is lowliness of service. “Whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be slave of all” (Mark 10:43, 44). The point is not that service is the avenue to honor; service is itself honor.

B. The continuation of Christ’s ministry. The ministry of Christ did not terminate abruptly with the completion of His earthly career in the Resurrection and Ascension. The NT indicates its continuation along two different but parallel lines.

There is, first, His ministry in heaven where He rules over all things for His Church (Eph 1:20-23), represents and intercedes for His people as their priest before the throne of God (Heb 7:25; 1 John 2:2), and is preparing a place for them to dwell with Him forever (John 14:1-3).

Christ also continues His ministry on earth through His body the Church in which He is permanently present in the Person of the Holy Spirit (John 14:15ff.; 1 Cor 12:4ff.; Eph 1:22, 23; 4:1-16; cf. Matt 28:18-20). The Church is a living organism created by the Spirit for Christ’s use in carrying out His redemptive purpose in the world, just as His physical body was fashioned by the same Spirit for His ministry during the earthly period of the Incarnation (Luke 1:31, 34, 35). All Christian ministry at its source and in its manifold expressions is a continuation of the ministry of Jesus across the age-long sweep of history. There is truth, therefore, in what Bromiley labels the “hazardous” conception of the Church and its ministry as an extension of the Incarnation. The Church has no independent ministry of its own, but one which is in every respect derivative. It has received its ministry from Christ. It learns its ministry from Christ. It discharges its ministry in the name of Christ and on His behalf. Whether it is the preaching of the Word, the administration of the sacraments, the relief of human distress, or the exercise of discipline, it is the personal, determinative action of Christ which lies behind and assumes tangible expression in the ministry of the Church.

It should not be assumed, however, that this continuing ministry in the Church is wholly identical with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee and Judea two thousand years ago. That ministry was unique and formative, the single root from which the continuing ministry has sprung and to which it must ever return for its energy and dynamic. Through its ongoing service the Church communicates to each new generation of men the saving grace first released through the life, death and resurrection of the Servant-Messiah. It does so only as the organic instrument of the living Lord who in the Spirit is ever present with and within His body.

This truth is further attested in the NT by its ascription to the ascended Christ of many of the titles by which varieties and orders of ministry in the Church are designated. He is called Apostle (Heb 3:1; cf. Mark 9:37; Luke 10:16; John 5:36; 6:29; 7:29; 8:42; 10:36; 11:42; 17:3ff.); Teacher (Mark 4:38; 9:17, 38); Bishop (1 Pet 2:25); Shepherd, tr. “pastor” when used of ministers (1 Pet 2:25; cf. Matt 26:31; Mark 14:27; John 10:11ff.; cf. 1 Pet 5:4) and Deacon or Servant (Rom 15:8; cf. Luke 22:27).

The Church, then, is absorbed into the ministry of Christ. This is to say that ministry is the privilege and responsibility, not of an elite corps of ecclesiastical dignitaries, but belongs equally and alike to every member of Christ’s body. No one can share in authentic Christian ministry unless by faith he first lays hold for himself on the saving benefits of Christ’s own ministry. The moment a man does that there falls upon him the solemn, binding obligation of helping to advance God’s gracious design in Christ to earth’s outmost frontiers.

Christian discipleship is ministry. The accomplishment of God’s purpose for the world in Christ is never to be construed as itself necessitating the ministry of the Church and its individual members. “The necessity of the Church’s ministry is the necessity of its incorporation into Christ, not its indispensability for the fulfillment of the divine purpose” (G. W. Bromiley, Christian Ministry, p. 27). Only Christ is the true Minister, and His ministry alone is original, ultimate, indispensable.

III. The nature and purpose of ministry

A. Ministry as mission. All ministry, whether of Christ or the Church, is divine in its origin and sanction. In the fourth gospel Jesus characteristically refers to Himself as having been sent by God, thereby claiming both a general divine commission and specific divine authority for utterances and actions which sometimes outraged the religious scruples of His contemporaries (John 5:36, 37; 6:29ff.; 7:28, 29, etc.; cf. Matt 15:24; Mark 9:37; Luke 9:48; 10:16). He employs the same language when commissioning His disciples to carry on His ministry after His Ascension (John 20:21). The Church’s ministry is a mission, and in rendering its service to the world the Church demonstrates its obedience to the command of its Lord (Matt 28:18-20).

B. Ministry as service. To describe the Church’s ministry, the NT writers chose out of various possibilities the word διακονία, G1355, a familiar term for lowly service, which they apply indiscriminately to the service of all believers alike. The comprehensiveness of this term is brought out by its wealth of association in the NT. Apostles and their co-workers are διάκονοι of God (2 Cor 6:4; 1 Thess 3:2), of Christ (2 Cor 11:23; Col 1:7; 1 Tim 4:6), of a new covenant (2 Cor 3:6), of the Gospel (Eph 3:7; Col 1:23), of the Church (1:24, 25), or in an absolute sense (1 Cor 3:5; Eph 6:21; Col 4:7). Ministry likewise is a διακονία, G1355, of apostleship (Acts 1:17, 25), of the Word (Acts 6:4), of the Spirit (2 Cor 3:8), of righteousness (3:9), of reconciliation (5:18), of serving tables (Acts 6:2), and of financial aid for fellow believers in distress (2 Cor 8:4; cf. 8:19, 20). It is received from the Lord (Col 4:17), who calls all His followers to participate in it (Eph 4:12). It should be noted that Christian ministry is not exclusively oriented to the spiritual, but encompasses the physical dimensions of life as well (cf. Rom 15:25).

The spirit of humility which animates Christian ministry, already evident in the term διακονία, G1355, is intensified when believers are called “slaves” of Christ and of God (Acts 4:29; 1 Cor 7:22; 1 Pet 2:16; cf. Rom 12:11; 1 Thess 1:9). No ground for human vanity and pride remains when even apostles bear the name of slave (Rom 1:1; James 1:1; Jude 1). Yet where gratitude reigns in hearts redeemed by the Lord who took the lowest place of service in love (Phil 2:7, 8), offering His life as a ransom for His own (Mark 10:45), even the calling to be His slave is gladly embraced as the noblest, most privileged vocation of all.

C. Ministry as priesthood. Christian ministry further has a priestly character and function. It is hardly accidental that the NT, while retaining the term “priest” (ἱερεύς, G2636) for Jewish and pagan priests, nowhere applies this term to any single class of Christian ministers. The only priests so designated by the NT are the saints, all believers in Christ (1 Pet 2:5, 9; Rev 1:6; 5:10; 20:6). Herein lies a fundamental distinction between Christianity and ancient pagan cults and one of the greatest spiritual advances of the Christian dispensation over the OT. There is only one priesthood, that of Christ Himself, and He shares it equally with all the members of His body. It is a corporate rather than an individual possession. In their priestly ministrations individual Christians function as representatives of the whole community and on its behalf.

Equally significant is the deliberate restraint with which the NT applies sacrificial language to Christian ministry. As priests, believers offer sacrifices of praise (Heb 13:15), of service (Phil 2:17; Heb 13:16), and of self-dedication (Rom 12:1), but never do they offer sacrifices for sin. The solitary sacrifice for sin which the NT allows is the self-sacrifice of Christ, offered once for all (Heb 10:12, 26ff.). It is only by means of the great Head of the Church that the union with the all-meritorious sacrifice of lesser sacrifices of worship and service offered by the members of Christ’s body are rendered acceptable to God. The priestly and sacrificial system of the OT stands forever abrogated by the sacrifice and priesthood of Christ in which it has been perfectly fulfilled (Heb 5:1-10).

D. The purpose of ministry. Christian ministry, like all creation, is intended primarily for the glory of God (1 Pet 4:10, 11). To achieve this end it serves a dual purpose among men. In relation to the unbelieving world, Christian ministry, even in its humanitarian expressions, is essentially evangelistic and missionary, looking to the numerical and geographical expansion of the body of Christ, until in its human composition it is complete.

Ministry also serves a reflexive purpose in relation to the Church itself. Enumerating various gifts conferred on the Church by its ascended Lord, Paul asserts that they are “for the equipment of the saints, for the work of ministry, for building up (οἰκοδομή, G3869, ‘edification’) the body of Christ” (Eph 4:12; cf. Acts 9:31; Rom 14:19; 1 Cor 14:5, 12, 26; Eph 4:16). Commonly misconstrued as the stimulation of pleasant religious feelings, edification means inner spiritual strengthening and growth. Within the Church ministry is didactic and pastoral, seeking to develop believers into mature disciples, who as robust, healthy, and vigorous members of the body of Christ render it a more effective instrument for His service. Both forms of ministry, however, converge on a common goal: the upbuilding of the body of Christ—in the one case, by the accession of new members, and in the other, by advancing and enriching the spiritual life of present members.

IV. Spiritual gifts and ministry

A. The primacy of the Holy Spirit in ministry. A focal point in Jesus’ Upper Room and post-resurrection teaching concerns the advent of the Holy Spirit whom He promised to send from the Father, and in whom He would be present with His followers until the close of the age (John 14:16, 17, 26; 15:26; 16:7ff.; 20:22; Acts 1:4, 5, 8; cf. Luke 24:49). These passages set forth the primacy of the Holy Spirit in the continuing ministry of the risen and ascended Lord through His body the Church. This executive operation of the Holy Spirit furnishes a double continuity with the ministry of Christ. On the one hand, He mediates the presence and power of the living Lord, while on the other hand the incarnate ministry of Jesus Himself was conducted in the power and under the control of the Spirit (Luke 4:14, 15; Acts 10:38).

The Book of Acts abundantly documents the reality of the Spirit’s dominant role in the concrete experience of the apostolic Church (Acts 2:1ff.; 4:8, 31; 5:1-11, 32; 6:3ff.; 8:29ff.; 9:31; 10:19; 13:2, 4; 15:28; 16:6, 7; 19:6, 21; 20:28). The Spirit equips and empowers the Church for ministry, then channels its many varieties of service to their divine goal in the expansion and spiritual enrichment of the Church. While to the body of Christ has been entrusted an external ministry of evangelistic and pastoral dimensions, in the inner spiritual regions it is the living Christ who executes all ministry in the Person of His Spirit. Christian ministry came of age at Pentecost (Acts 1:4, 5, 8; Eph 4:8ff.).

B. The charismatic character of ministry. The NT identifies all forms of ministry as divine “gifts” (χάρισμα, G5922, “grace-gift”) of the ascended Lord who bestows them on the Church through His Spirit (Eph 4:7-12). These gifts, which are wholly of grace—the same grace which is the source of the believer’s justification—display the following characteristics:

1. Necessity. Possession of a supernatural endowment of the Spirit is indispensable for effective ministry. The NT envisions no possibility of service whatever apart from the Spirit’s gifts. It is misleading, therefore, to distinguish between so-called “charismatic ministries” (prophecy, tongues, miracles, etc.) and “non-charismatic” ministerial orders (elder and deacon). All of the essential functions associated with ministerial orders in the NT are included in the Pauline catalogues of spiritual gifts (Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11, 28-31; 14:1ff.; Eph 4:11, 12). The same apostle further regarded elders, who presumably held their office by some manner of human selection and ordination, as appointed by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). Since the apostolic Church required satisfactory evidence that a person was filled with the Holy Spirit before entrusting him with the most ordinary service (6:3), one may assume that candidates for official ministerial orders were chosen from among those persons in whom the Spirit’s gifts were most conspicuous. In any event, all ministry is charismatic, so that it is the Spirit’s gifts which decisively qualify men for service.

2. Diversity. All gifts originate with the same Spirit; however, they display a diversity which accords with the division of labor within the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:4-11). The grace of the Spirit assumes many varieties of forms and flows through many different channels. Although useful in their own right, not all gifts are of equal value. Paul regarded tongues, for example, as inferior to prophecy (1 Cor 14:1-5), while esteeming love as the highest gift of all (1 Cor 13, which follows without interruption the detailed discussion of gifts in ch. 12).

3. Universality. Just as every organ in the human body performs its own unique function, so every member of the body of Christ has his special contribution to make to the well-being and usefulness of the whole (1 Cor 12:7; Eph 4:7, 16; 1 Pet 4:10). The NT is entirely innocent of the common distinction between clergy and laity, which regards the clergy as “ministers” and the laity as mere spectators. Laity (λαός, G3295) means “the people of God” and embraces all members of Christ’s body, while all members are His servants. In sovereign freedom the Spirit distributes to individual believers the gifts that render their service possible (1 Cor 12:11). While the same believer may possess multiple endowments (2 Tim 1:11), there is no monopoly of the Spirit’s gifts. Every believer has one gift or more, held in trust for the common good.

4. Sufficiency. All ministry is designed to build up the body of Christ in living union with its Head (1 Cor 14:3ff.; Eph 4:11, 12). Determined in accordance with this purpose, the Spirit’s gifts are by their very nature and bestowal the pledge and guarantee of its fulfillment. Nothing else is needed. Drawing on its vast wealth of spiritual resources the ministering Church advances toward its completeness in Christ.

C. Varieties of spiritual gifts. Of the several passages in which Paul catalogues the Spirit’s gifts three deserve special notice. Romans 12:6-8 lists prophecy, service (διακονία, G1355), teaching, exhortation, liberality, giving of aid (“rule,” KJV, or “management”), and acts of mercy. 1 Corinthians 12:28-31 mentions apostles, prophets, teachers, workers of miracles, healers, helpers, administrators, speakers in tongues, and interpreters of tongues. Ephesians 4:11, 12 specifies apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers.

1. Apostles. The most important group of persons mentioned in these lists were the apostles. The term is used first of the Twelve whom Jesus chose and personally trained as apprentices through intimate association with Himself for their career of preaching the Gospel (Mark 3:13-19; 6:30). These two features—appointment by Jesus in the days of His flesh and companionship with Him throughout His entire ministry—were the distinguishing marks of the Twelve.

Others also bore the name of apostle: Matthias, who by divine direction was chosen to replace Judas (Acts 1:15-26); Paul, who claimed direct appointment to apostleship by the risen Lord (Rom 1:1ff.; Gal 1:1); James the brother of Jesus and head of the Jerusalem Church, who also presided over the first general Church Council even though Peter and Paul were present (Acts 15); Barnabas (14:14; 1 Cor 9:6); Andronicus and Junias (Rom 16:7); possibly Apollos (1 Cor 4:6-9); and perhaps Silas (1 Thess 1:1; 2:6). Paul calls Epaphroditus an “apostle” of the Philippian church (Phil 2:25), and further refers to other “apostles of the churches” (2 Cor 8:23). In the last two instances ἀπόστολος, G693, frequently is tr. “messenger” (KJV, RSV); however, since the NT elsewhere does not use the term of ordinary messengers, this rendering may be questioned. False apostles also are mentioned (2 Cor 11:13; Rev 2:2), whose fraudulent claims may have been exposed by their failure to show the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12).

Essential to apostleship is the idea of mission (ἀποστέλλειν, “to send”). The NT apostles were primarily pioneer preachers of the Gospel and the original authoritative witnesses to Christ who traveled throughout the Jewish and Gentile world establishing congregations of new converts. Occupying unique positions of leadership and authority, they further superintended the work of the churches, commissioned local officers, administered discipline, and settled issues of general dispute (Acts 14:23 15:1ff.). Nearly all of the NT books were written by apostles, and the few that were not came from the hands of their intimate associates and evidently received apostolic endorsement.

2. Evangelists. Also itinerant missionary preachers, evangelists seem to have differed from apostles very little, except for their lower rank and authority, possibly because they lacked the unique qualifications for apostleship. Philip, one of the “Seven” who became an evangelist (6:5; 21:8), first introduced the Gospel to Samaria (8:4ff.). Paul exhorted Timothy in fulfilling his ministry to do the work of an evangelist (2 Tim 4:5).

3. Prophets. Second in importance only to the apostles, with whom they were sometimes classed, were the prophets (Eph 2:20; 3:5). Jesus promised to send prophets (Matt 23:34), and the NT shows that His promise was fulfilled. Although they received direct revelation from God (1 Cor 14:30), prophets were not channels of new truth for the Church but inspired preachers of the Word whose deliverances provided upbuilding, encouragement, and consolation (1 Cor 14:3). They did occasionally, however, forecast future events (Acts 11:27f.; 21:10f.). They were required to speak only what was revealed to them (Rom 12:6), and their words must agree with the authoritative apostolic teaching (1 Cor 14:37, 38).

Any believer might receive this gift, and Paul encouraged all the Corinthians to seek it (14:1). Generally spontaneous and occasional (Acts 19:6), it was more permanently bestowed on some who formed a special group of prophets, anyone or several of whom might speak in turn at regular services of worship (1 Cor 14:29-33). Those specifically mentioned include Agabus (Acts 11:28; 21:10); Symeon called Niger, Lucius, and Manaen at Antioch, along with Barnabas and Paul (13:1); Judas and Silas (15:32); and the four daughters of Philip (21:9). False prophets also circulated in the Church, as Jesus had forewarned (Matt 7:15); hence, believers were admonished to test prophetic teaching for its consistency with the essential faith of the Gospel (1 John 4:1-3). A specific imposter, a woman named Jezebel (most likely a symbolical name), corrupted the Church at Thyatira with her pernicious doctrine (Rev 2:20). The gift of prophecy is esp. prominent in 1 Corinthians because its practice in Corinth was badly abused and in need of correction.

4. Teachers and pastors. That persons who had the gift of teaching were highly esteemed in the apostolic Church is evident from their association with apostles and prophets (Acts 13:1; 1 Cor 14:28; cf. 1 Tim 2:7; 2 Tim 1:11). Including women in their number (Titus 2:3-5), they gave instruction in matters of Christian faith and ethical duty. In the Gentile churches esp. they trained converts from paganism in the knowledge and interpretation of the OT, while they also expounded the words of Jesus and the apostolic doctrine contained in the growing body of tradition. They sometimes actively participated in the services of worship (1 Cor 14:26), but much of their ministry was conducted more informally among groups of believers. In Ephesians 4:11 teachers are also called “pastors” (ποιμήν, G4478, “shepherd”), a term which suggests general oversight of a local congregation, as well as instruction.

5. Other gifts. The exact nature of some of these gifts of the Spirit is uncertain. “Administrators” (κυβερνήτης, G3237, “steersman, pilot”) apparently shared in the management of local congregational affairs. “Helpers” likely attended to benevolent service among the sick, the poor, the persecuted, etc. Persons having the gift of “tongues” employed it in prayer, singing, and thanksgiving (1 Cor 14:14-17). Gifts of “healing” and other miraculous powers also were found in the apostolic Church.

V. The organized ministry

Perhaps no subject in the history of the Christian Church has been more greatly vexed by confusion, discord, and bitter strife than that of ministerial order. The problem is a vastly complicated one. For one thing, the NT presents a picture of local communities of believers in different stages of development and with few fixed structures of ministry. Then, too, the NT evidence is in many important particulars incomplete or altogether missing, while information from the early postapostolic period is likewise scanty and not always reliable. High-sounding pronouncements on many aspects of this subject tend to be fragile and brittle, revealing more about the author’s own views than the practice of the primitive Church. One must, therefore, proceed with caution and humility, not vainly boasting a knowledge which is not ours.

This much is certain. In the formative years of the Church its ministry exhibited amazing variety and adaptability. Emerging at Pentecost as a non-schismatic Jewish sect, the Church naturally modeled its ministry in part on patterns borrowed from the synagogue. The creative Spirit of the risen Lord inhabiting His body also fashioned within it from the beginning new organs and channels of ministry through which to communicate the life-giving grace of God to men.

From the early chs. of Acts it is evident that at the first the apostles directed the life of the infant Church. Presently they were joined in their ministry by evangelists and prophets who assisted them in spreading the Gospel far and wide. As new communities of Christians sprang up in Judea, Samaria, and throughout the Gentile world, the need emerged for official structures of ministry to direct the affairs of local churches. The NT generally employs three terms to designate the two official orders of ministry which were established: elder, bishop, and deacon. It always must be remembered that alongside of these orders there existed a veritable constellation of other local and itinerant ministries, all alike Christ’s gifts to His Church through His indwelling Spirit.

A. Presbyter-Bishops. There is no record to indicate when the office of “elder” (πρεσβύτερος, G4565) was instituted. Elders are found early in the Christian communities of Judea (Acts 11:30), while Paul and Barnabas appointed elders in charge of the congregations they established on their first missionary journey (Acts 14:23). This office was borrowed, though modified, from the Jewish synagogue, where a company of elders ruled the religious and civil life of the community. Primarily custodians of the Mosaic law, these Jewish elders taught and interpreted its precepts, and administered punishments to its offenders.

The NT also designates Christian elders by the name “bishop” (ἐπίσκοπος, G2176, “overseer”). Although sometimes disputed, the evidence overwhelmingly supports this identification. (1) In Acts 20:17, Paul summons the elders of the Church at Ephesus, while in verse 28 he calls these same men “bishops.” (2) In Philippians 1:1, Paul extends formal greetings to all the Christians at Philippi, along with their bishops and deacons, but he takes no notice of elders. This omission is inexplicable unless bishops and elders were identical. (3) In 1 Timothy 3:1-13, Paul sets forth the qualifications of bishops and deacons, but not elders, in considerable detail. Yet he specifically mentions elders in ch. 5, where he ascribes to them the same functions of ruling and teaching which in the earlier passage are attributed to bishops (cf. 3:4f.; 5:17). (4) In Titus 1:5, 6, after commanding Titus to appoint elders in all the churches in Crete, Paul counsels him to restrict his choice of elders to men who are “blameless.” He then explains this requirement by adding, “For a bishop...must be blameless,” a pointless argument if the two terms do not designate the same office. “Elder” and “bishop,” then, are synonymous, but whereas “elder” indicates the great dignity surrounding this office, “bishop” signifies its function of rule or oversight. In the NT oversight is esp. related to the figure of the shepherd who feeds and cares for his flock. It is therefore natural that pastoral language is interwoven with the use of the term “bishop” (Acts 20:28; cf. John 21:15-17). In their pastoral oversight of congregational life elders reflect Christ’s own office as the Shepherd and Bishop of souls (1 Pet 2:25; cf. John 10:11ff.; Heb 13:20; 1 Pet 4:4), and rule with His authority.

The comprehensive character of their office involved elders in a wide variety of duties. They engaged in the ministry of preaching and teaching the Word (1 Tim 5:17). Not all of them did so, however, but there is no NT basis for distinguishing between “teaching” and “ruling” elders, as if they formed two separate classes. Elders also guarded the churches against false doctrine (Titus 1:9), rendered pastoral service (James 5:14); and administered ecclesiastical discipline. Their participation in the Jerusalem Council along with the apostles (Acts 15:1ff.) indicates that their authority, though essentially local, extended to the whole Church. They are charged not to rule in lordly fashion nor for financial gain, but to exercise their authority with humility (1 Pet 4:1-5). Likely they conducted worship, although anyone in the congregation possessing a suitable gift of the Spirit might participate in the service (1 Cor 14:26ff.). Little is said in the NT about sacramental duties, but since both sacraments were closely tied to the ministry of the Word and worship (Matt 28:19; Acts 2:41, 42; 8:35-38; 20:7; 1 Cor 11:17ff.), one may assume that in the absence of an apostle, evangelist, or prophet, elders were largely responsible for their administration. Clement of Rome, writing near the end of the 1st cent., says specifically that they officiated at the Eucharist. Local churches apparently appointed their own elders, who were then ordained by other elders in a solemn ceremony of laying on of hands (1 Tim 4:14), although one cannot be absolutely sure of either of these things. Presumably the elders of the apostolic Church were the equivalent of pastors today. It is esp. notable that the Apostles Peter and John both refer to themselves by this name (1 Pet 5:1; 2 John 1; 3 John 1).

B. Deacons. Forming a subordinate order of ministry were the deacons (διάκονος, G1356, Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:8ff.). Not copied from any Jewish or Gentile prototype, this office was a wholly new creation of the Christian Church. Its origin frequently is traced to the “Seven” who were appointed to administer the distribution of welfare in the Jerusalem Church (Acts 6:1ff.). Nowhere are the “Seven” called “deacons,” while the word διακονία, G1355, is used in this passage to contrast their ministry of serving tables with the apostles’ ministry of the Word. Moreover, two of their number, Stephen and Philip, soon distinguished themselves as highly gifted preachers (Acts 6:8ff.; 8:4ff.; 21:8). Alfred Plummer summed up the situation well: “To call the ‘Seven’ the first deacons is a conjecture which can be neither proved nor disproved.” While there is no evidence to link the “Seven” with the deacons of Philippians and 1 Timothy, their appointment may have provided the basic pattern for the later office.

The specific functions of the deacons are beclouded by nearly as much uncertainty as their origin, and their duties must be inferred from the nature of their qualifications. They were required to be of serious mind and character, honest in speech, temperate, free from greed for money, and to “hold the mystery of the faith with a clear conscience” (1 Tim 3:8, 9). This list of qualifications, together with the natural associations of the word διακονία, G1355, suggests that household visitation and administration of local benevolence funds were among their responsibilities. At a later date this was certainly so. It is further known that in the post-apostolic Church deacons served as personal assistants to the bishops in conducting wo