MEALS. Time of eating, foods served, manner of eating, and treatment of guests are all important aspects of mealtime in the ancient Near E.

1. Terminology. There are a number of words in the Bible to express the idea of meals and of eating:

1. Principal words for “to eat” are: אָכַל, H430, Genesis 2:16, etc., tr. “to dine” (Gen 43:16); לֶ֫חֶם, H4312, eat (Ps 141:4), etc.; ἐσθίω, G2266, eat (Matt 9:11, etc.); φάγω, eat (Matt 6:25, etc. sometimes “meat,” KJV).

2. Principal words for food are: אֹ֫כֶל, H431, (Gen 41:35, etc.); אָכְלָה, H433, (Gen 1:29, etc.; “meat,” KJV); ֭בוּל֙, (Job 40:20); לֶ֫חֶם, H4312, food in general, or more specifically, bread (Lev 3:11; Judg 13:16; 1 Sam 14:24; Ps 78:25; Dan 5:1), tr. “feast” (sometimes “meat,” KJV); מַאֲכָל, H4407, (Gen 2:9, etc.; sometimes “meat,” KJV); טֶּ֖רֶף, “prey,” in the sense of food, from a word meaning something torn, snatched (Gen 49:9; Amos 3:4, etc.); בִּרְיָ֔ה, “meat” KJV (2 Sam 13:5, 7, 10); τροφή, G5575, (Acts 14:17; James 2:15; sometimes “meat,” KJV); βρῶμα, G1109, (“meat,” KJV, Luke 3:11, etc.); βρῶσις, G1111, (“meat,” KJV, John 4:32, etc.); פַּת־בַּ֤ג (delicacies “meat,” KJV, Dan 1:5, etc.).

3. עֵ֣ת אֹ֗כֶל (lit., time of eating), “mealtime” (Ruth 2:14).

4. אֲרֻחָה, H786, (“meal,” “allowance of food,” from word meaning wander, journey), “dinner” (Prov 15:17).

5. Generally only two meals were eaten: (1) ἄριστον, G756, (the first food taken before work, hence breakfast), “dinner” (Matt 22:4; Luke 11:38, 14:12); ἀριστάω, G753, (lit., “to breakfast”), “dine,” KJV, “breakfast,” RSV (John 21:12, 15); (2) δεῖπνον, G1270, (from word, “to sup,” hence the evening meal); “feasts” (Matt 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 20:46); “banquet” (Mark 6:21; Luke 14:12); “supper” (John 12:2; 13:2, etc.).

6. A number of words were used for banquet, feast, and revelry: (1) מַרְזֵחַ, H5301, (lit., a cry of mourning or revelry), “banquet,” KJV; “revelry,” RSV (Amos 6:7); (2) מִשְׁתֶּה, H5492, (from word “to drink” (Gen 19:3; Judg 14:10; 2 Sam 3:20; Esth 1:3; 5:4-6, 8, 12, 14; 6:14; 7:2, 7, 8; Job 1:4; Dan 5:10; etc.); tr. variously by RSV as “banquet,” “dinner,” “drinking,” “feast”; (3) שָׁתָה֮, H9272, (from word “to drink”), “banquet,” KJV; “feast,” RSV (Esth 7:1); (4) כֵּרָה, H4130, (from word “bring, invite”), “give a feast” (2 Kings 6:23); “make a banquet,” KJV (“bargain,” RSV) (Job 41:6); (5) בֵּ֣ית הַיָּ֔יִן (lit., “house of wine”), “banqueting house” (Song of Solomon 2:4); (6) לֶ֫חֶם, H4312, “feast” (Dan 5:1); (1) πότος, G4542, (lit., “a drinking,” “a carousing”), “banquetings,” KJV (“carousing,” RSV) (1 Pet 4:3); (8) δοχή, G1531, (from word “receive as a guest”), “feast” (Luke 5:29, 14:13); (9) ἑορτή, G2038, (from word “to keep a feastday or festival”), “feast” (Matt 26:5; Luke 2:41; John 4:45, etc.); (10) συνευωχέω (lit., “to feast together”), “carousing with you” (2 Pet 2:13); “carouse together” (Jude 12).

7. Words used for a sacred feast or an appointed feast: (1) חַג, H2504, (from word “to make a pilgrimage”), used of sacred feasts (Exod 10:9, 23:15, 34:22); (2) חָגַג, H2510, “hold a feast” (Exod 5:1; Lev 23:39, etc.); (3) מﯴעֵד, H4595, (an appointed meeting), “appointed feasts” (Lev 23:2; Num 29:39, etc.); (4) מﯴעָדָה, 2 Chronicles 8:13.

8. See also expressions such as “sit at table” (“at meat,” KJV).

2. Everyday meals

a. Time of eating. Only two meals a day were usually eaten (Exod 16:12; 1 Kings 17:6). The laborer worked until midday before taking his first meal. The noon meal was not important, usually consisting of bread, olives, and sometimes fruit. The chief meal of the day (and prob. the only one for the poor) was served in the early evening, an hour or two before sunset when the duties of the day were over. It was a time of rest, refreshment, and family reunion. After the meal for an hour or two before bedtime the men sat around and talked (cf. Jer 15:17).

b. Place of eating. At family meals in the earliest times the Hebrews usually sat on the ground on mats to eat. Men and women ate together (Ruth 2:14; Job 1:4) except at more formal gatherings (Gen 18:8-10). Later the Hebrews adopted the Canaanite practice of sitting on chairs or stools and eating from small leather stands. Ordinary homes did not have a room just for dining; at mealtime a broad circular mat or low tables were placed on the floor within reach of all who would dip from the common dish. Larger homes had dining rooms with one side open to the street with adjustable curtains. Passers-by stopped to look in to see who was being entertained and even talked with the guests. The table was a three-sided piece of furniture with open space left for servants to serve the meal. Guests reclined on couches which could accommodate three people. The wealthy homes had large dining halls. Amos denounced the dissolute rich reclining on their couches (Amos 6:4).

Abraham served his guests outdoors (Gen 18:8). Gideon served an angel under a tree (Judg 6:19). Shepherds and laborers ate their meals where they worked. The disciples of Jesus picked ripe grain and ate it one Sabbath as they passed through the fields (Mark 2:23). Jesus fed the multitude on a hillside (John 6:1-14) and His disciples on a beach after His Resurrection (John 21:9-13).

c. Foods served. Bread and water were the mainstay of the common people (Isa 3:1). Meat was a luxury seldom enjoyed by the poor, though wild game was available (Gen 25:27, 28; 27:3). Meat from specially fattened animals was saved for special occasions (1 Sam 28:24; Amos 6:4; Luke 15:23). A lamb sometimes was roasted entire, sometimes stewed in milk (see restriction, Exod 23:19). Fish was an abundant source of meat. Eggs were available (Isa 10:14; Luke 11:12). Milk, particularly of the goat and camel, was served fresh or made into a curds-and-whey form (prob. the dish that was given to Sisera, Judg 4:19). Butter and olive oil were important foods. Melons were popular (Num 11:5). Vegetables were an important part of the diet; beans, lentils, and peas were made into a tasty pottage (Gen 25:29). Fresh fruits were eaten in season. Figs, raisins, walnuts, almonds were the commonest dried fruits (Gen 43:11; 1 Sam 25:18). Relishes (onions, leeks, garlic, lettuce), seasonings (salt, spices), and sweets (usually honey and dates) were greatly desired by the Israelites (Gen 43:11; Num 11:5; 1 Kings 10:10). Locusts were eaten by John the Baptist (Matt 3:4).

The harvester’s fare consisted of bread dipped in vinegar and parched grain (Ruth 2:14). The shepherd carried with him a meal of bread, sometimes fruit and cheese, which he ate at noon while the sheep rested. A soldier’s ration consisted of parched grain, bread, and cheese (1 Sam 17:17, 18; cf. 25:18).

3. The wayfarer’s meals. Wayfarers often had difficulty finding food. Quail and manna were provided by God in answer to the complaints of the hungry Israelites (Exod 16:13-16). Hagar and her son were sent into the wilderness with only bread and a skin of water (Gen 21:14). Elijah was fed by the ravens (1 Kings 17:6). Caravan drivers were careful to take generous amounts of food with them, consisting of dried fruits, bread, olives, and cheese. A nomadic code of hospitality developed in the ancient Near E so that a sojourner coming to a stranger’s home was assured of food, shelter, and protection from enemies who might be pursuing him. His host knew that one day he might be obliged to ask for similar shelter. Jael’s slaying of Sisera was a violation of the nomadic code (Judg 4:17-22; cf. Gen 18:1-8; 19:1-3; 24:29-33; Judg 19:16-21 for other examples of hospitality to travelers). Inns for travelers were a much older institution than most people realize, though usually only the well-to-do trader or traveler could afford them. The brothers of Joseph stopped at an inn on the way home from Egypt (Gen 42:27; 43:21). Moses and his family stopped at a lodging place on their way back to Egypt (Exod 4:24). The innkeeper was not subject to the nomadic laws of hospitality, for he required payment for his food and lodging (Luke 2:7; 10:35).

4. Guests at meals

a. Duties of host. Proper etiquette was an important part of hospitality in the ancient Near E (Matt 25:34, 35). The host was obligated to protect his guests against enemies (Ps 23:5). Lot (Gen 19:8) and Gibeah (Judg 19:23, 24) were ready to sacrifice the honor of their daughters in order to protect their guests. The guest was welcomed with a kiss (Luke 7:45); water was provided to wash his dusty feet (Gen 18:4; 19:2; Judg 19:21; 1 Sam 25:41; Matt 15:1, 2; Mark 7:2; Luke 7:44; John 13:4, 5). The guests attended in their best attire, usually white (Eccl 9:8), or sometimes were provided with garments by their host. They were anointed by their host or by servants (Amos 6:6; Matt 26:7; Luke 7:38; John 12:3). Jesus rebuked Simon the Pharisee for ignoring the usual courtesies (Luke 7:44-46). Sometimes the guests had wreaths placed on their heads (Isa 28:1; 61:3). They were escorted to the table where they reclined on couches (Esth 1:6; Ezek 23:41; John 21:20), seated in order of age or importance (Gen 43:33; 1 Sam 9:22; 20:25; Mark 10:37; Luke 14:8). It was very important that a person not compete for the highest place at the table (Luke 14:1-11).

After the guests were seated, servants passed among them to wash the hands. Afterward the host offered a blessing for the food (1 Sam 9:13). Jesus gave thanks when He fed the multitude (Matt 14:19; 15:36; Mark 6:41; 8:6, 7; Luke 9:16). He gave thanks at the Lord’s Supper (Matt 26:26, 27; Mark 14:22, 23; Luke 22:17, 19; 1 Cor 11:24). He blessed the meal with the Emmaus disciples (Luke 24:30). The early Christians blessed their meals (Acts 27:35; Rom 14:6; 1 Cor 10:30).

b. Serving of food. Guests usually were served by the women of the household (Matt 8:14, 15; Mark 1:30, 31; Luke 10:40), or by servants in the wealthier homes (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chron 9:4). Forks and other utensils were not used; guests ate with their fingers (Prov 26:15; Mark 14:20; John 13:26). Cups and goblets were provided for drinking wine (1 Kings 10:21). As a special act of respect the master of the house sometimes personally attended his guests. The guest of honor received the choicest and largest portions of food (Gen 43:34; 1 Sam 9:24). As an assurance of friendly regard, the host himself would dip a piece of bread in the common dish and hand it to another at the table (John 13:26). Crumbs were thrown under the table to dogs (Matt 15:27).

c. Entertainment. Banquets and feasts were often accompanied by music (Isa 5:12), by singing (2 Sam 19:35; Isa 5:12; Amos 6:4-6), by dancing (1 Sam 30:16; Matt 14:6; Mark 6:21, 22; Luke 15:25), by the asking of riddles (Judg 14:12-18). In NT times Gr. banquets were aesthetic and intellectual gatherings. After eating, the assembled guests talked far into the night on philosophy and politics.

5. The king’s table. Ancient Oriental rulers gave banquets that are still unmatched for opulence. A tiny lapis-lazuli cylinder seal carved before 3000 b.c. shows a banquet of Queen Shub-ad with guests seated on little stools, receiving from servants goblets of wine while other servants are fanning to keep them cool. Akhenaton of Egypt served in a spacious dining hall with garlands hanging from pillars while slaves cooled the air with fans. He had a summer dining room in a garden on a tiny island on an artificial lake. Egyptians did not eat at the same table with foreigners (Gen 43:32).

Many people ate at the king’s table, including his family, vassals, and favorites (1 Sam 20:29, 34; 2 Sam 9:7, 13). Defeated enemies ate at the conqueror’s table (2 Kings 25:29). Solomon’s table was famous for its lavish service (1 Kings 10:5) and abundant food (4:27). Sons of loyal friends of David ate at Solomon’s table (2:7). Four hundred prophets ate at Jezebel’s table (18:19). Daniel and his friends refused the king’s food (Dan 1:5-8). Nehemiah had 150 officials at his table (Neh 5:17). Officials, such as cupbearers, bakers, butlers, and carvers were in charge of the king’s table (Gen 40:1; Neh 1:11). Singers, dancers, and other entertainers were used to enliven the banquets which often developed into drunken orgies. The sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple were used at Belshazzar’s drunken debauch (Dan 5:1-4). Probably the greatest banquet recorded in the Bible was that of Ahasuerus for his nobles and governors which lasted 180 days (Esth 1:4). Esther gave private dinners for the king and Haman (5:4-12; 7:1).

6. Taboos and restrictions. The Hebrews had a number of dietary laws which forbade the eating of certain animals called unclean (Lev 11; cf. Acts 10:9-16). The Pharisees would not eat without washing their hands (Mark 7:3). In NT times the Jews did not approve of eating with Gentiles or sinners (Matt 9:11). Moderation in diet was encouraged (Eccl 10:17). In the NT Christians were not to reject anything as common which God has made (Acts 11:9). Excesses were condemned (Rom 13:13; Gal 5:19, 21; 1 Pet 4:3). Jesus said that food was not the most important thing in life (Matt 6:25). Christians were not to ask any questions about food set before them at feasts (1 Cor 10:25-27).

7. Ritual meals

a. Pagan. The Mesopotamians emphasized that sacrifice was a meal provided for the god, and Ras Shamra texts show that the Canaanites believed that the gods needed food. Babylonians offered wild and domestic animals; they offered cakes of meal, dotted with incense, before their gods as food offerings. Ugaritic worshipers in N Syria used food offerings in their worship. Jeremiah denounced the people for offering cakes to the queen of heaven (Jer 7:18). Offerings of food for the dead were common in Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures. The Greeks offered animal sacrifices, and even the Eleusinian mysteries included the offering of sheaves of grain. The Romans sacrificed great numbers of animals. Gifts of food were brought to the gods at mealtime on special occasions (such as a birthday, wedding, or safe return from a journey).

b. Jewish. Hebrew Scriptures do not equate sacrifice with a meal provided for God. The sacrifices of Gideon (Judg 6:19-22) and of Manoah (13:15-20) were not eaten by the angel of the Lord but were transformed into a holocaust. Israelite sacrifice cannot be satisfactorily explained by calling it a meal offered to a god, though at the popular level it is quite likely that many Israelites thought that sacrifices were a meal in which the Lord took part. The three major festivals of the Hebrews—Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles—involved offerings. The prophets protested against the abundance of sacrifices and offerings from a disobedient people (1 Sam 15:22; Isa 1:13-17; Amos 5:21-24; Mic 6:7, 8; Mal 1:6, 7). Slaves shared in the sacrificial meals (Deut 12:12).

c. Christian. The NT ritual of the Lord’s Supper is a ritual meal derived from the Jewish Passover and instituted by Jesus (1 Cor 11:23-26). It is observed as a memorial reminder of the sacrificial death of Jesus for the sins of men. Paul warned that the Corinthian Christians were making a mockery of the sacred meal (11:20-22).

8. Symbolic use of meals in the Bible. In the OT failure of food is a symbol of God’s judgment (Ezek 4:16; Amos 4:6); fullness of bread symbolizes prosperity (Ezek 16:49). The Egyptians will be given as food to the beasts and birds, symbolizing judgment (29:5); “my tears have been my food” (Ps 42:3), expressing longing for God. Feasting is a symbol of happiness (Prov 15:15) and of judgment (Jer 51:39). God will make a great feast at the end of the ages (Isa 25:6). Proverbs 4:17 mentions eating “the bread of wickedness.”

In the NT feasting is a symbol for the coming kingdom (Matt 8:11; 26:29; Mark 14:25; Rev 19:9, 17). Jesus said His food was to do the will of God (John 4:34). He referred to Himself as living water (4:10), bread from heaven (6:41), eating His flesh and drinking His blood (6:54-56). God’s word is compared to food (Matt 4:4). See Food.

Bibliography A. C. Bouquet, Everyday Life in NT Times (1953), 69-79; M. S. and J. L. Miller, Encyclopedia of Bible Life (1955), 299-319; E. W. Heaton, Everyday Life in OT Times (1956); L. Köhler, Hebrew Man (1956), 86, 87; R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel (1961), 10, 122, 468-517.