LABOR (Gr. κόπος, G3160, Heb. יְגִיעָה, H3331, עָמָל֒, H6662. Trs. “labor” thirteen times, “trouble” five times, “weariness” once in NT.) Meaning: (1) work, labor in the physical, originally in the agricultural sphere, (2) moral action, deed, hence, with adjectives or genitives defining its character” (Souter); synonym: work, ἔργον, G2240. Translated “work” 152 times, “deed” twenty-two times, “doing” one, “labor” one in NT. Meaning: “produce activity...exert one’s powers of body or mind...to strive, as toward a goal” (RHD). “Toil, labor, laborious toil, involving weariness and fatigue” (Souter). In general the idea of labor or work in the Bible usage seems to embody four major concepts: namely, (1) the productive, (2) the disciplinary, (3) the socio-economic, and (4) the redemptive.

1. The productive concept. God’s original purpose for man is expressed in the Bible in a twofold manner as stewardship of “production” and “preservation” in the Garden of Eden under the divine commission to “till it and keep it” (Gen 2:15). That this was God’s purpose for man, in part at least, even before His creation, is evidenced by God’s prior statement, “there was no man to till the ground” (2:5b). However, this exalted divine purpose in the dignity of man’s labor finds its highest expression in God’s commission involving man’s responsibility to “subdue...and have dominion over” the created natural order (1:28). Thus man was challenged to employ, under God’s guidance and blessing, all phases of his personality (the physical, 2:15; intellectual, 2:19, 20; social, 2:18-24; and procreative, 1:28).

2. The disciplinary concept. This aspect of labor was added with a view to aiding man in his recovery from the divine-human alienation wrought by the Fall. While human effort (labor) then, as always in the Bible, could never be a substitute for divine atonement in man’s salvation; it did, nevertheless, like Paul’s concept of the purpose of the law, direct and aid fallen man toward God’s saving mercy (cf. Gal 3:24, 25). Thus the “curse” or “judgment” pronounced by God upon man (Gen 3:16-24), because of his alienating sin, turned out to be God’s most merciful blessing designed to bring out of man under the duress of hard labor, directed toward worthy objectives, the best and highest of his innate potential, and consequently to prevent him from yielding in slothfulness to the gravity of his fallen nature and degenerating to the lowest possible human denominator. Perhaps nothing short of the saving mercy of God in Christ is of greater benefit to man than honest, productive labor. If property is the extension of personality, then honest labor that produces or procures property contributes eminently to the realization of personal worth. Thus labor imposed upon man as a discipline because of sin (3:17-19) turned out to be one of his greatest corrective blessings.

3. The socio-economic concept. The one day of rest derives its total significance from the six days of labor (Exod 20:8, 9; cf. Heb 4:9, 10). The success of the entire socioeconomic structure of all societies rests upon the various divisions of labor (sexual—men and women—skilled and unskilled, mental and manual, etc.), and the readiness of each to perform his respective duties conscientiously and efficiently. It is as ethically obligatory upon the employed to thus serve his employer as it is for the employer to reward the employed equitably (Luke 10:7; 1 Tim 5:19). James pronounces strong condemnation upon the employer who withholds earned wages upon which the laborer is dependent for his livelihood (Mitton, pp. 179, 180; Jas 5:4; cf. Lev 19:13; Deut 24:15; Matt 20:1ff.). Such injustices gave rise to guilds, organized labor and trade unions to protect the workers’ interests from unprincipled employers. Since labor is exacted of the slave who is deprived of personal earning power, slavery or forced labor, whether under a primitive totalitarianism or a contemporary sophisticated socialistic system, can never be justified ethically. “The entire problem of work and rest, labor and relaxation, diligence and laziness, capital and labor, production and consumption, inventory and distribution, receive light from the fourth commandment” (Coffman, p. 55).

Wisely did Paul admonish certain of his converts, some of whom were evidently equating religion with exemption from labor: “If any one will not work, let him not eat,” for says he, “some of you are living in idleness, mere busybodies, not doing any work” (2 Thess 3:10, 11). In the Didaché (Teaching of the Twelve) a professed prophet was disqualified if he remained with his host for more than three days, but esp. if he asked for money (Bettenson, p. 71). It has been well said that “Our highest happiness depends upon work and none should envy the poor parasite who manages to get along without it” (Coffman, p. 56).

4. The redemptive concept. The ideas of labor for production and discipline merge with the Biblical concept of labor in redemption. Thus considered, labor has a distinctive eschatological significance in the NT. From the outset man began the redemption of the earth from the curse caused by human sin by laboriously tilling the soil from which he produced his livelihood (Gen 3:17, 18). But the idea of redemption is also implicit in man’s divinely given commission to “subdue...and have dominion over” the natural order (1:28). Thus the efforts (labor) of scientists throughout human history have been both redemptive and productive. The Biblical redemptive concept of labor becomes more explicit in the NT. Christ labored to accomplish man’s salvation (Luke 22:44; John 4:34; 5:17; 9:4; 17:4), and believers are exhorted to labor to enter into the salvation-rest provided for them by Christ (Matt 11:28-30; John 6:27; Heb 4:11). Thus considered, Christ’s eschatological provision offers deliverance from the wearisome burdens of the law. Labor for the reconciliation of unbelievers by believers is explicit and obligatory in the NT (Matt 28:18-20; 2 Cor 5:20; cf. 1 Thess 1:3; Rev 2:2). Accordingly, the last and distinctive NT use of labor for the believer on earth is in the interest of the Christian community (cf. 1 Cor 9:16-25; Phil 2:16; Col 1:29; 1 Thess 2:9). Finally, the redemptive labors of believers will be rewarded in eternal salvation by God Himself (1 Cor 15:58; Rev 14:13).

Bibliography A. Souter, “ἔργον, G2240, ” and “κόπος, G3160,” A Pocket Lex. of the NT (1916), 96, 137; J. Orr, ed., “Labor,” ISBE, III (1939), 1819; J. B. Smith, “κόπος, G3160,” Gr.-Eng. Concordance (1955), 206; ibid., “ἔργον, G2240,” 149; H. Bettenson, The Early Christian Fathers, 71; C. F. Wolf, “Labor,” IDB, III (1962), 51, 52; Hauck, “κόπος, G3160,” and “κόπιαω,” TDNT, G. Kittel, ed. III (1965), 827-830; J. B. Coffman, The Ten Commandments Yesterday and Today (1961), 48-57; J. Stein, ed., Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1966); C. L. Mitton, The Epistle of James (1966), 175-183.